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CONTENTS<br/><br/>Table of European Cases <br/>Table of lnternational Cases <br/>Table of Legislation <br/>Table of European and International Treaties, Conventions, and Charters <br/>Bibliography <br/>List of Abbreviations <br/><br/>1.INTRODUCTION TO COMPETITION LAW <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction <br/>3.The Economics of Competition Law <br/>A.Basic Concepts of Welfare Economics <br/>B.Perfect Competition and Efficiency <br/>C.Monopoly <br/>D.Oligopoly <br/>E.Perfect Competition, Monopoly, Market Power, and Competition in the Real World <br/>F.The Concept of Welfare: Total (Social) Welfare, Consumer Welfare, and Efficiency Trade-offs <br/>G.Dynamic Competition<br/>4.Schools of Competition Analysis and Theories and Concepts Relevant to Competition Law <br/>A.The Structure - Conduct - Performance Paradigm and the Harvard School <br/>B.The Chicago School, Post-Chicago, and Neo-Chicago <br/>C.Game Theory <br/>D.Contestable Markets Theory <br/>E.Raising Rivals' Costs <br/>F.Transaction Cost Economics <br/>G.Workable Competition <br/>H.The Austrian School <br/>1.Effective Competition <br/>5.Ordoliberalism <br/>6.Possible Goals of Competition Law <br/>A.General <br/>B.Economic Efficiency and Welfare <br/>C.Economic Freedom and the Process of Competition <br/>D.Protecting Competitors <br/>E. Fairness<br/>F.Public Policy and Socio-Political Factors<br/>G. The EU Dimension of the Single Market <br/>7. US Antitrust Law <br/>8. EU Competition Law <br/>A. The Objectives of the EU and the Role of the Competition Rules <br/>B. The Objectives of EU Competition Law <br/>9. Public Policy Considerations and EU Competition Law<br/>10. Industrial Policy<br/>11. The Application of Competition Law <br/>A. Form, Effects, and Theories of Harm <br/>B. Over- and Under-Enforcement: Type 1 and Type 2 Errors <br/>C. The Use of Economic Analysis <br/>12. The New Economy <br/>13. EU Competition Law and Regulation <br/>14. Competition Law and the International Context <br/>15. Market Power, Market Definition, and Barriers to Entry <br/>A. Market Power <br/>B. Market Definition and EU Competition Law <br/>C. Barriers to Entry and Expansion <br/>16. Conclusions <br/>17. Further Reading <br/><br/>2. THE COMPETITION LAW AND INSTITUTIONS OF THE EUROPEAN UNION<br/>1. Central Issues <br/>2. lntroduction <br/>3. Introduction to the European Union <br/>A. The European Union and the European Community <br/>B. The EU Treaties <br/>C. The Non-judicial EU Institutions <br/>D. EU Legislative and Other Acts <br/>E. The EU Courts <br/>F.General PrincipIes of EU Law and Fundamental (Human) Rights <br/>4. The Competition Provisions <br/>A. General <br/>B. The Substantive Competition Provisions of the TFEU <br/>C. The Procedural Provisions <br/>D. The European Merger Regulation (EIJMR) <br/>E. Other Relevant Treaty Provisions <br/>5.Communications and Notices <br/>6.The Competition Rules and the European Economic Area <br/>7.Modernisation <br/>8.Conclusions <br/>9.Further Reading <br/><br/>3. ARTICLE 101 TFEU: THE ELEMENTS <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction <br/>3.The Text of Article <br/>4.The Scheme of Article 101 <br/>A.The Three Paragraphs <br/>B.The Consequences of lnfringement <br/>C.Burden and Standard of Proof <br/>5.The Interpretation and Application of Article 101(1) <br/>A.Undertaking' and 'Associations of Undertakings' <br/>B.The Meaning of Agreement', 'Decision', and 'Concerted Practice' <br/>C.Object or Effect of the Prevention, Restriction, of Distortion of Competition <br/>D.An Appreciable Effect on Competition and Trade <br/>E.An Appreciable Effect on Trade Between Member States <br/>F.Agreements Required by National Legislation or Encouraged by National Governments <br/>G.Commission Nouces <br/>H.Extraterritoriality <br/>6.Article 101(2) <br/>7.Exclusions <br/>8.Conclusions <br/>9.Further Reading <br/><br/>4. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ARTICLE 101 (i) AND ARTICLE 101(3) TFEU <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction and Background <br/>A.Article 101 (1) and Article 101(3) <br/>B.Possible Ways of Reconciling Article 101(1) and Article 101(3) <br/>C.The Interpretation of Object or Effect is the Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition'—The Early Approach <br/>D.Section 1 of the Sherman Act <br/>E.Modernisation <br/>3.Article 101(1), Agreements Which Have as Their Object or Effect the Prevention, Restriction, or Distortion of Competition<br/>A.Object of Effect <br/>B. Agreements that Restrict Competition by Object: Restraints Which Reveal a Sufficiently Deleterious Impact on Competition <br/>C. Agreements that Do Not Restrict Competition by Object:Analysing Their Effects <br/>D. Conciusions on the Approach Required Under Article 101 (1) <br/>4.Article 101(3) <br/>A.Application of Article 101 (3) <br/>B.Burden and Standard of Proof <br/>C.Any Agreement May in Principle Benefit from Article 101(3) <br/>D.The Article 101 (3) Criteria <br/>E.Block Exemptions <br/>F.Unilateral Action and Article 101 (3) <br/>5.Conclusions <br/>6.Further Reading <br/><br/>5. INTRODUCTION TO ARTICLE 102 TFEU <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction <br/>3.The Text of Article 102 <br/>4.The Scheme of Article 102 <br/>A.The Prohibition <br/>B.The Enforcement of Article 102 <br/>S.The Interpretation and Application of Article 102 <br/>A.The Meaning of One or More Undertakings <br/>B.A Dominant Position <br/>C.A Dominant Position Within a Substantial Part of the Internal Market <br/>D.Abuse <br/>E.An Effect on Trade Between Member States <br/>6.The Review of Article 102 <br/>A.The Inauguration of the Review <br/>B.The Staff Discussion Paper <br/>C.The Guidance Paper <br/>7.The Relationship Between Article 102 and Article 101 <br/>8.Conclusions <br/>9.Further Reading <br/><br/>6. ARTICLE 102 TFEU: DOMINANT POSITION <br/>1. Central Issues <br/>2. Introduction <br/>3. The Definition of a Dominant Position <br/>A. The Definition of a Dominant Position in the Case Law <br/>B.Dominant Position in the Guidance Paper <br/>C.Effects-Based Analysis and the Concept of Dominance <br/>4.Establishing Dominance <br/>5.Market Definition in Article 102 Cases <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Product Market <br/>C.The Geographic Market<br/>D.The Temporal Market <br/>E.The TetraPakllCase <br/>6.Assessing Market Power <br/>A.General <br/>B.Market Shares <br/>C.Other Factors Indicating Dominance and Barriers to Entry <br/>D.Countervailing Buyer Power <br/>E.Dominant Positions in the New Economy <br/>7.Conclusions <br/>8.Further Reading<br/><br/>7. ARTICLE 102 TFEU: CONDUCT WHICH CAN BE AN ABUSE <br/>Central Issues <br/>2.lntroduction <br/>3.The Meaning of Abuse <br/>A.General <br/>B.Types of Abuse Covered by Article 102 TFEU <br/>C.Article 102 Covers Exploitative and Exclusionary Abuses <br/>D.The Broad Nature of the Concept of Abuse <br/>E.Exclusionary Abuses: Distinguishing Illegitimate from Legitimate Conduct <br/>F.Form- and Effects-Based Analysis <br/>G.Appreciability <br/>4.The Commission's Approach to Exclusionary Abuses in the Guidance Paper: The Anti-Competitive Foreclosure Concept <br/>5.Objective Justification, Efficiency, and Other Defences <br/>A.General <br/>B.Objective Justiflcation in Post Danmark <br/>C.Objective Necessity <br/>D.Efflciencies <br/>E.The Burden of Proof <br/>F.The Difficulties of the Efficiency Defence <br/>G.Protecting the Undertaking's Own Commercial Interests <br/>H.The Meeting Competition' Defence <br/>6.Dominance and Abuse on Different Markets <br/>7.General Issues in Respect of Abuses Concerning Prices <br/>A.Exploitative and Exclusionary Pricing Policies <br/>B.Price Discrimination <br/>C.Costs Levels <br/>D.The General Approach of the Guidance Paper to Price-Based Exdusionary Conduct: The As Efficient Competitor' Standard <br/>E.The General Approach of the EU Courts to Pricing Abuses <br/>8.Predatory Pricing <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Areeda—Turner Test <br/>C.The Test Laid Down in AKZO <br/>D.The Post Danmark 1 Case <br/>E.The 'Meeting Competition' Defence and Predatory Pricing <br/>F.Recoupment <br/>G.Predatory Pricing in the Guidance Paper and the Sacrifice Principle <br/>H.Predatory Pricing in New and Digital Economy Markets<br/>1.Selective Above-Cost Pricing <br/>9.Margin Squeeze <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Case Law <br/>C.Cases and Decisions Outside the Telecommunications Sector<br/>D.Margin Squeeze in the Guidance Paper <br/>E.US Law on Margin Squeeze <br/>F.Comment <br/>G.Summary <br/>10.Exclusivity Obligations and Exclusive Dealing <br/>A.General <br/>B.Exclusive Purchasing <br/>C.Exclusive Distribution <br/>D.Exclusive Purchasing in the Guidance Paper <br/>11.Discounts and Rebates <br/>A.General <br/>B.Terminology of Discounts and Rebates <br/>C.Categories of Rebates in EU Law <br/>D.Quantity Rebates <br/>E.Exclusivity (Loyalty/Fidelity) Rebates <br/>F.Rebates Falling Within the Third Category<br/>G.Rebates in the Guidance Paper <br/>H.Conclusions<br/>12.Tying and Bundling <br/>A. General <br/>B. The Commercial Rationale for Tying and Bundling <br/>C. The Economic Arguments over Tying and Bundling <br/>D. Tying and Bundling and Article 102 <br/>E. The Case Law <br/>F. Tying and Bundling in the Guidance Paper <br/>13.Refusal to Supply <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Exclusion of Competitors from Downstream Markets <br/>C.Refusal to Supply and Intellectual Property Rights <br/>D.Refusal to Supply and Interoperability—The Microsoft Case <br/>E.Refusal to Supply in Situations Not Involving Upstream Downstream Markets <br/>F.Refusal to Supply in the Guidance Paper <br/>G.Refusal to Supply and the Essential Facilities' Doctrine in US Law <br/>14.Other Exclusionary Practices <br/>A.General <br/>B.Pursuit of Legal Proceedings, Vexatious Litigation, and Enforcing Legal Rights <br/>C.The Misuse of lntellectual Property Rights or Other Regulatory Procedures <br/>D.Search Engine Practices <br/>E.The Acquisition of intellectual Property Rights and/or Competing Technologies <br/>F.Naked Restrictions <br/>G.Vertical and Horizontal Integration <br/>15.Discrimination <br/>A. General <br/>B. Article 102(c) TFEU <br/>C. Article 102(c) and Non-Vertically lntegrated Undertakings <br/>D.Vertically Integrated Undertakings <br/>E.Geographical Price Discrimination <br/>F.Competitive Disadvantage and Article 102(c) <br/>16.Exploitative Abuses <br/>A.Unfairly high or Low Pricing <br/>B.lmposing Unfair Trading Conditions and Entering into Restrictive Agreements<br/>C.Inefficiency and Limiting Production <br/>17.Conduct Hindering Inter-Member State Trade <br/>18.Abuse and Collective Dominance <br/>19. Conclusions<br/>20. Further Reading <br/><br/>8. COMPETITION, THE STATE, AND PUBLIC UNDERTAKINGS: ARTICLE 106 TFEU <br/>1. Central Issues <br/>2. Introduction <br/>3. Article 4(3) TEU <br/>4. Article 106 <br/>A. The Objectives of Article 106 <br/>B. The Format of Article 106 <br/>S. Article 106(1) <br/>A. Definitions <br/>B. Measures Which Are Forbidden by Article 106(1) <br/>C.Summary of the Situations Which Infringe Article 106(1)<br/>in Conjunction with Article 102 <br/>6. Article 106(2) <br/>A. The Institutional Setting of Services of General Economic lnterest <br/>B. The Concepts and Terminology of Services of General Economic lnterest' and 'Services of General lnterest' <br/>C.The Purpose of Article 106(2) <br/>D. Undertakings Having the Character of a Revenue-Producing Monopoly <br/>E.Undertakings Entrusted with the Operation of Services of General Economic lnterest <br/>F.No Effect on Trade Contrary to the lnterests of the Union <br/>7. The Direct Effect of Article 106(1) and (2) <br/>A.Article 106(1) <br/>B.Article 106(2) <br/>8. Article 106(3) <br/>A. The Ambit of the Provision <br/>B. Decisions <br/>C. Directives <br/>9. Services of General Economic lnterest and State Aid <br/>10. Conclusion on Services of General Economic Interest <br/>11. Conclusions <br/>12. Further Reading <br/><br/>9. CARTELS AND OLIGOPOLY <br/>1. Central lssues <br/>2. lntroduction <br/>A. Cartels and Oligopoly <br/>B.Explicit and Tacit Collusion <br/>C.Competition Law and Collusion (Explicit and Tacit) <br/>3.Cartels, Information Exchanges, and Restrictions on Non-Price Trading Conditions, Advertising, and Promotion <br/>A.'Hardcore' Cartels <br/>B.lnformation-Sharing Agreements <br/>C.Restrictions on Non-Price Trading Conditions, Advertising, and Promotion <br/>D.Proving a Breach <br/>4.Oligopoly <br/>A.The Oligopoly Problem and Article 101<br/>B.Oligopoly and Article 102 <br/>C.Alternative Methods for Dealing with Oligopolistic Markets Under EU Law <br/>S.Conclusions <br/>6.Further Reading<br/><br/>10. HORIZONTAL COOPERATION AGREEMENTS <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction <br/>3.Appraisal of Horizontal Cooperation and Joint Ventures: Evolution of Policy <br/>A.Appraisal Under the EU Merger Regulation or Article 101?<br/>B.The Development of the Commission's Approach to the Assessment of Horizontal Cooperation Under Article 101 <br/>4.Research and Development Agreements <br/>A.The Application of Article 101 (1) <br/>B.The Application of Article 101 (3) <br/>5.Production Agreements <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Application of Article 101 (1) <br/>C.The Application of Article 101 (3) <br/>6.Purchasing Agreements <br/>A.The Nature of joint Purchasing and its Treatment in the Guidelines <br/>B.Cases on Joint Purchasing <br/>7.Commercialisation Agreements <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Application of Article 101 (1) <br/>C.The Application of Article 101 (3) <br/>8.Standardisation Agreements <br/>A.Staridardisation and Standard-Setting<br/>B.Standardisation Agreements with Environmental Benefits <br/>C.Standard Tens <br/>9. Agreements in Particular Sectors <br/>A. General <br/>B. Insurance <br/>C. Payment Services <br/>D. Sport <br/>10. Conclusions <br/>11. Further Reading <br/><br/>11. VERTICAL AGREEMENTS <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2. Introduction <br/>A. General <br/>B.Methods of Distribution <br/>C.Competition Rules and Distribution <br/>3. The EU Approach to Distribution Agreements—An Overview <br/>A. The Background: The Single Market Project and Restrictions on Economic Freedom <br/>B. The Approach Since 1999: The Block Exemption and Reform <br/>C. Methodology <br/>4. Distribution Agreements and Article 101 (1) of the Treaty <br/>A. Vertical Agreements which Restrict Competition by Object <br/>B.Analysing the Restrictive 'Effect of Vertical Restraints <br/>5. Article 101(3) <br/>A. General <br/>B. The Old Block Exemptions <br/>C. The Verticals Regulation—Regulation 330/2010 <br/>D. The Motor Vehicle Distribution Block Exemption <br/>E.Article 101(3)—Individual Assessment <br/>6. Subcontracting Agreements <br/>7. Article 102 and Distribution <br/>8. Conclusions <br/>9. Further Reading <br/><br/>12. LICENSING AGREEMENTS AND OTHER AGREEMENTS INVOLVING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS <br/>1. Central Issues <br/>2. Introduction <br/>A. General <br/>B.Types of intellectual Property Rights <br/>C. The Relationship Between Intellectual Property Rights and Competition Law <br/>D. The Relationship Between Intellectual Property Rights and the Free Movement Rules <br/>3.Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights by Licensing <br/>A.General <br/>B.Commercial Considerations in Licences <br/>C.Development of Competition Policy Towards Licensing of Intellectual Property Rights <br/>D.The 2014 TTBER and the Technology Transfer Guidelines <br/>4.Regulation 316/2014, the TechnoiogyTransfer Block Exemption <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Scheme of the TTBER <br/>C.Principal Features of the TTBER <br/>D.Scope of the TTBER <br/>E.Safe Harbour: The Market Share Thresholds <br/>F.Hardcore Restrictions <br/>G.Excluded Restrictions <br/>H.Withdrawal and Disapplication of the Block Exemption <br/>5.The Application of Article 101 to Licensing Agreements Failing Outside the TTBER <br/>A.General Principles <br/>B.Specific Provisions <br/>6.Trade Mark Licences <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Campari Decision <br/>C.The Moosehead/Whitbread Decision <br/>D.The Current Position <br/>7.Trade Mark Delimitation Agreements <br/>8.Copyright (Other Than Software) Licences <br/>A.General <br/>B.Broadcasting Licences and Performance Copyright <br/>C.Collective Licensing of Copyright <br/>9.The Application of Article 102 to Intellectual Property Rights <br/>10.Conclusions <br/>11.Further Reading <br/><br/>13. PUBLIC ENFORCEMENT BY THE COMMISSION AND THE NATIONAL COMPETITION AUTHORITIES OF THE ANTITRUST PROVISIONS <br/>1. Central Issues <br/>2. Introduction <br/>3. The Change to the Enforcement Regime in May 2004 <br/>4. Modernisation and Regulation 1/2003 <br/>A. The Old Enforcement Regime Set Up by Regulation 17 <br/>B. The Modernisation White Paper <br/>C.Regulation 1/2003 and the Modernisation 'Package' <br/>5.The European Competition, Network<br/>6.The Best Practices Notice and the Manual of Procedures <br/>7.Enforcement by the Commission <br/>A. General <br/>B.Fundamental Human Rights <br/>C.The Investigation Stage of the Administrative Procedure: Fact-Finding by the Commission <br/>D.The Second, 'Inter Partes' or 'Adversarial', Stage of the Procedure <br/>E.Commission Decisions <br/>F.The Settlement Procedure m Cartel Cases<br/>G.Informal Settlements <br/>H.Fines and Periodic Penalty Payments <br/>1.Sector Inquiries <br/>J.The Powers of the Commission and Due Process <br/>8.Proceedings Before the Court of justice of the European Union <br/>A.Judicial Review <br/>B.Actions for Damages Under Article 340 TFEU <br/>9.Enforcement by the National Competition Authorities Within the European Competition Network <br/>A.General <br/>B.Division of Work <br/>C.Consistent Application of Articles 101 and 102 <br/>D.Further Strengthening of the NCAs and the ECN <br/>10.The Relationship Between EU and National Competition Law <br/>11.Criminalisation and Sanctions Against Individuals <br/>12.Complaints <br/>A.General <br/>B.Where to Complain <br/>C.Standing <br/>D.The Procedure <br/>E.The Three-Stage Procedure <br/>F.Rejection of the Complaint <br/>G.Acting on a Complaint <br/>H.Judicial Review Proceedings <br/>1.Complaints and the Merger Regulation <br/>13.Conclusions <br/>14.Further Reading <br/><br/>14. PRIVATE ENFORCEMENT <br/>1. Central Issues <br/>2. lntroduction <br/>3. The Role of Private Antitrust Litigation and its Relationship with Public Enforcement: The Experience in the US <br/>4.Private Enforcement in the EU <br/>A.Overview: Effective Judicial Protection and the Principle of National Procedural Autonomy <br/>B.Uniform and Concurrent Application of Articles 101 and 102 <br/>C.The Enforceability of Agreements lnfringing Article 101 or 102 <br/>D.Remedies: Injunctions and Damages <br/>5.Conclusions <br/>6.Further Reading <br/><br/>15. MERGERS <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction <br/>A.What is a Merger? <br/>B.The Purposes of Merger Control <br/>C.The History of the European Merger Control Regulation <br/>D.Scheme of the European Union Merger Regulation <br/>3.Jurisdiction <br/>A.Concentrations <br/>B.EU Dimension <br/>C.Concentrations with an EU Dimension: A One-Stop Shop? <br/>D.Concentrations without an EU Dimension <br/>E.A Residual Role for Articles 101 and 102 of the Treaty <br/>4.Procedure <br/>A.Notification <br/>B.Reasoned Submissions <br/>C.Suspension <br/>D.Phase 1 Investigation <br/>E.Phasell <br/>F.Conduct of Merger Investigations <br/>G.Summary <br/>5.Substantive Appraisal of Concentrations Under the EU Merger Regulation <br/>A.Background <br/>B.Reform and the New Substantive Test <br/>C.Burden and Standard of Proof and Counterfactual <br/>D.A Significant Impediment to Effective Competition <br/>E.Article 2(4),(5), JointVentures <br/>F.Restrictions Directly Related and Necessary to the Concentration <br/>G.Commitments or Remedies<br/>6.EUMR Statistics <br/>7.Judicial Review and Other Proceedings Before the EU Courts <br/>8.International Issues <br/>A.The Long Arm of the EUMR<br/>B.Reciprocity <br/>9.Conclusions <br/>10.Further Reading <br/><br/>16. INTERNATIONAL ASPECTS <br/>1.Central Issues <br/>2.Introduction <br/>3.International Law <br/>4.US Law <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Effects Doctrine <br/>C.Enforcement and the Reactions of Other States <br/>D.Foreign Plaintiffs iii US Courts <br/>E.The Effects Doctrine and Foreign Conduct Affecting Exports <br/>5.EU Law <br/>A.General <br/>B.The Dyestuffs Case and the Single Economic Entity Doctrine <br/>C.The Wood PuIp Case and the lmplementation Doctrine <br/>D.The Gencor Case <br/>E.Intel and the Qualified Effects Doctrine <br/>F.The Innolux Case and the Calculation of Fines <br/>G.Enforcement Jurisdiction <br/>6.International Cooperation <br/>A.General <br/>B.EU Bilateral Agreements <br/>C.Multilateral Cooperation <br/>7.Conclusions <br/>8.Further Reading <br/><br/>Index <br/> |
